The Genetic Material Must Exhibit Four
Characteristics
¥
For a molecule to serve as the genetic
material, it must be able to replicate, store information, express information,
and allow variation by mutation.
¥ The central dogma of molecular genetics
is that DNA makes RNA, which makes proteins (Figure 10.1).
¥ The genetic material is
physically transmitted from parent to offspring. Proteins and nucleic acids
were the major candidates for the genetic material.
¥ For a long time, protein was favored to
be the genetic material. It is abundant in cells, it was the subject of the
most active areas of genetic research, and DNA was thought to be too simple to
be the genetic material, with only four types of nucleotides as compared to the
20 different amino acids of proteins.
¥ Griffith showed that avirulent strains
of Diplococcus pneumoniae could be transformed to virulence (Figure
10.3).
He speculated that the transforming principle could be part of the
polysaccharide capsule or some compound required for capsule synthesis.
¥ Avery, MacLeod, and
McCarty demonstrated that the transforming principle was DNA and not protein (Figure
10.4).
¥ Nucleotides are the
building blocks of DNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar,
and a phosphate group.
¥ The nitrogenous bases can be purines or
pyrimidines. The purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G). The pyrimidines are
cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) (Figure 10.9).
¥ DNA and RNA both contain
A, C, and G, but only DNA contains T and only RNA contains U.
¥ RNA contains ribose as its sugar; DNA
contains deoxyribose (Figure 10.9).
¥ A nucleoside contains
the nitrogenous base and the pentose sugar. A nucleotide is a nucleoside with a
phosphate group added (Figure 10.10).
¥ Nucleotides are linked
by a phosphodiester bond between the phosphate group at the C-5' position and
the OH group on the C-3' position (Figure 10.12).
¥ Chargaff showed that the amount of A is
proportional to T and the amount of C is proportional to G, but the percentage
of C + G does not necessarily equal the percentage of A + T
(Table
10.3).
¥ X-ray diffraction of DNA
showed a 3.4 angstrom periodicity, characteristic of a helical structure (Figure
10.13).
¥ Watson and Crick
proposed DNA is a right-handed double helix in which the two strands are antiparallel
and the bases are stacked on one another. The two strands are connected by A-T
and G-C base pairing and there are 10 base pairs per helix turn (Figure
10.14).
¥ The A-T and G-C base
pairing provides complementarity of the two strands and chemical stability to
the helix.
¥ A-T base pairs form two hydrogen bonds
and G-C base pairs form three hydrogen bonds (Figure 10.16).
Viral and
Bacterial Chromosomes Are Relatively Simple DNA Molecules
¥ Bacterial and viral chromosomes are
usually a single nucleic acid molecule, are largely devoid of associated
proteins, and are much smaller than eukaryotic chromosomes.
¥ Bacterial chromosomes are
double-stranded DNA and are compacted into a nucleoid.
¥ DNA in bacteria may be associated with
HU and H DNA-binding proteins.
Supercoiling
Is Common in the DNA of Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes
¥ Supercoiling compacts DNA (Figure
12.4).
Most closed circular DNA molecules in bacteria are slightly underwound and
supercoiled.
¥ Topoisomerases cut one
or both DNA strands and wind or unwind the helix before resealing the ends.
DNA Is
Organized into Chromatin in Eukaryotes
¥
Eukaryotic chromosomes are complexed
into a nucleoprotein structure called chromatin.
¥ Chromatin is bound up in nucleosomes
with histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.
¥ Nucleosomes are condensed several times
to form the intact chromatids (Figure 12.9).
¥ Chromatin remodeling must occur to allow
the DNA to be accessed by DNA binding proteins.
¥ Euchromatin is uncoiled and active,
whereas heterochromatin remains condensed and is inactive.
Chromosome
Banding Differentiates Regions along the Mitotic Chromosome
¥ Mitotic chromosomes have a
characteristic banding pattern. In C-banding, only the centromeres are stained (Figure
12.11).
G-banding is due to differential staining along the length of each chromosome (Figure
12.12).
¥ The differential staining reactions
reflect the heterogeneity and complexity of the chromosome.
Eukaryotic
Chromosomes Demonstrate Complex Organization Characterized by Repetitive DNA
¥ Repetitive DNA sequences are repeated
many times within eukaryotic chromosomes, and there are a number of categories
of repetitive DNA (Figure 12.14).
¥ Satellite DNA is highly
repetitive and consists of short repeated sequences..
¥ Centromeres are the primary
constrictions along eukaryotic chromosomes and mediate chromosomal migration
during mitosis and meiosis.
¥ There are two types of telomere
sequences: telomeric DNA sequences and telomere-associated sequences. Both
consist of repetitive sequences.
¥ Moderately repetitive DNA includes
variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), minisatellites, and microsatellites.
¥ Short interspersed elements (SINES),
long interspersed elements (LINES), and transposable sequences are repetitive
DNAs that are dispersed throughout the genome rather than tandemly repeated.
The Vast
Majority of a Eukaryotic Genome Does Not Encode Functional Genes
¥ Highly repetitive and moderately
repetitive DNA constitute up to 40% of the human genome. There are also a large
number of single-copy noncoding regions, some of which are pseudogenes.